Nouns are defined as words that name people, places, things, or ideas.  

Here are some examples:

• People – teacher, professor, boss, secretary, computer programmer, bookkeeper, accountant, manager, website developer, salesman, director
• Places – school, university, classroom, office, company, store, bank
• Things – education, books, computer, briefcase, paper, pencils, phone, memo, account, products, business
• Ideas – success, challenge, hope, fulfillment

1.   Which word in the sentence is a noun that names an idea?

People in the global world make progress through inventions.

a.   people

b.   world

c.    progress

d.   inventions

2.   How many nouns are found in this sentence?

The pilot delayed the departure because of the snow on the runway.

a.   one

b.   two

c.    three

d.   four

Answer Key

1. c. “Progress” is an idea. The other answers are also nouns but they are classified as people, places, or things.

2. d. “Four” nouns are in this sentence: pilot, departure, snow, runway.

Nouns can be singular (meaning one person, place, thing, or idea) or plural (meaning more than one).

• Singular nouns: The lady at the bus station sold a ticket to me.
• Plural nouns: Many ladies worked at various bus stations and sold tickets.

How do you make nouns plural?

• In most cases, the plural noun is spelled with an “s” like in bus stations and tickets.
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• If the noun ends in a consonant (any of the 21 letters of the alphabet not counting the 5 vowels: a, e, i, o, u) and a “y,” then you change the “y” to “i” and add “es.” For example, lady (singular) to ladies (plural). “Lady ends with a consonant “d” and a “y” so you change the “y” to “i” and add “es.”
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• Nouns that end in “sh,” “ch,” “x,” “s,”  and “z” require an “es” to make the plural. Let’s look at some examples: brushes, lunches, boxes, bosses, buzzes.
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• Now, for the tricky part. There are several irregular plural forms in the English language. This means that the plural form does not follow the pattern above. It is spelled differently.
  Here are some examples:

• And lastly, some nouns are the same in their singular and plural forms.

For example:

aircraft, hovercraft, spacecraft, and other “-craft” vehicles; animals such as bison, deer, elk, moose, sheep, shrimp, swine; types of fish (cod, trout, pike, salmon, etc.); and the word “offspring.”

To determine if the noun is singular or plural, you need to use the context clues in the sentence.

For example, I saw several deer in the field (plural because of the word “several”).

The baby sheep was just born this morning (singular because of the verb “was”).

1.   Which sentence has plural nouns correctly formed with “es”?

a.   The dishs and glasses need to be washed.

b.   The houses have large porchs with bushes around them.

c.    The women wore dresses with ruffles and patchs of lace.

d.   The bosses insisted on giving passes to the interns.

2.   Which sentence has the correct plural form of the word that ends in “y”?

a.   The apartment complex has many balconys.

b.   I think that every large city needs several libraries.

c.    On the Fourth of July, there are many partys to watch the
fireworks.

d.   During our vacation, it was amazing that the skys were sunny
every day!

3.   How many plural words are found in this sentence?

The architects build several new restaurants with outdoor cafes for people to eat their meals outside.

a.   two

b.   four

c.    five

d.   six

4.   Which sentence has all of the nouns written in plural form?

a.   The aircraft are landing on the tops of the naval ships.

b.   Her tooth were so bad that she had four cavities!

c.    My feet were swollen from walking on the many trail for so many days.

d.   The key to catching the salmons are to look for their offspring and to fish early in the morning.

Answer Key

1.   b.  In this sentence, “Immigration” is a common noun and should not be capitalized.

2.   d.  In this sentence, “white house” is a proper noun and should be capitalized.

3.   b., d.  A proper noun names a specific person, place, thing, or idea. A common noun names any person, place, thing, or idea.

1.   d.  Bosses, passes, and interns are all correct plurals formed with “es.” The other answer choices have incorrect plural forms: a. dishs (dishes), b. porchs (porces), c. patchs (patches).

2.   b.  Libraries is the correct plural. The other answer choices have incorrect plural forms: a. balconys (balconies), c. partys (parties), d. skys (skies).

3.   c.  There are five plurals in this sentence: architects, restaurants, cafes, people, meals.

4.   a.  The plurals are written correctly: aircraft (with the verb “are”), tops, ships. The other answer choices have some nouns written in their singular form instead of the plural form: b. tooth (teeth), c. trail (trails), d. key (keys) and also the plural salmons is incorrect (salmon).

Nouns are classified as common or proper. A common noun names any person, place, thing, or idea. It does not begin with a capital letter.

However, a proper noun begins with a capital letter. It names a specific person, place, thing, or idea.

1.   Which sentence has incorrect capitalization?

a.   The courthouse is on Tenth Street.

b.   The National Archives hold Immigration documents.

c.    The Declaration of Independence was written in the year 1776.

d.   Washington, D.C. is the capital of the United States.

2.   Which sentence has incorrect capitalization?

a.   I heard that the temperature of the oceans is rising.

b.   The Olympics are always exciting to watch in the summer and

winter!

c.    There are nine justices appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court.

d.   The white house is where the U.S. president lives.

3.   Which statements about common and proper nouns are true?

a.   A common noun names a specific person, place, thing, or idea.

b.   A proper noun names a specific person, place, thing, or idea.

c.    A proper noun names any person, place, thing, or idea.

d.   A common noun names any person, place, thing, or idea.

Answer Key

1.   b.  In this sentence, “Immigration” is a common noun and should not be capitalized.

2.   d.  In this sentence, “white house” is a proper noun and should be capitalized.

3.   b., d.  A proper noun names a specific person, place, thing, or idea. A common noun names any person, place, thing, or idea.

Nouns can also be possessive. This means that the noun shows ownership or possession.

• When the noun is singular, you add an apostrophe and an “s” to make the possessive.
  For example:
  - a university’s logo
  - the manager’s role
  - the building’s elevator
  - an authority’s responsibility

• For plural nouns that end in “s,” add an apostrophe after the “s” to make it possessive.
  For example:
  - the companies’ products
  - the students’ questions
  - the workers’ salaries

• For plural nouns that are irregular, add an apostrophe and s (‘s).
  For example:
  - the people’s opinions
  - the alumni’s contribution
  - the data’s results

1.   Choose the correct plural possessive for “country.”

a.   country’s

b.   countrys’

c.    countries’

d.   countrie’s

2.   Choose the correct possessive noun to complete the sentence.

A _____ outcome is always better with everyone’s participation.

a.   games’

b.   team’s

c.    projects’

d.   task’es

3.   Which sentence has singular and plural possessive nouns?

a.   The day’s schedule was planned with many meetings.

b.   The assistant’s duty was to do research for the department’s  chairmen.

c.    The director’s decision determined the actors’ roles.

d.   The authors’ characters showed many distinct personalities.

Answer Key

1.   c.  The answer “countries’” is the correct plural possessive of “country.” The other answers are incorrect: a. is singular possessive; b. and d. have the plural of country misspelled. The plural is countries. The apostrophe is placed after the plural form.

2.   b.  The answer “team’s” is correct because we know that the subject must be singular because of the article “A” that begins the sentence. The other answers are incorrect: a. and c. are plural possessives; d. is the incorrect spelling of the plural possessive (tasks’).

3.   c.  The singular possessive noun is “director’s” and the plural possessive noun is “actors’.” The other answers are incorrect: a. has a singular possessive noun “day’s” but no plural possessive noun, b. has two singular possessive nouns “assistant’s” and “department’s,” and d. has one possessive plural noun “authors’” and no singular possessive plural nouns.

Verbs are defined as words that express action or a state of being.

Action verbs can be seen or heard or the actions are unseen and not heard. They tell what the subject of the sentence does.

A state of being verb is the same thing as a linking verb. This verb links the subject to the rest of the sentence (a noun or an adjective). The most common linking verb is the form of “to be” (e.g., am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been).

Sentences to show linking verbs

Joanna is my colleague (“is” links the subject Joanna to the noun colleague).

The staff meetings are interesting (“are” links the subject meetings to the adjective interesting)

Other common linking verbs include appear, become, feel, grow, look, grow, remain, seem, sound, taste, prove, stay, smell, turn.

A verb tense tells when the action takes place. The action can be taking place now or regularly (the present tense), in the future (the future tense), or it has already happened and it is over (the past tense).

• Present tense example: The department is completing its audit.
  The present tense verb often ends in “ing.”
• Future tense example: The diplomas will be awarded.
  The future tense verb often uses “will.”
• Past tense example: The secretary finished the report.
  The past tense verb often uses “ed.”

Irregular verbs have special tense forms.

However, there are no particular rules for forming the past tense of these irregular verbs.

Example:

(Present Tense) They are at the meeting.

(Past Tense) They were at the meeting.

(Present Tense) I go upstairs to my office.

(Past Tense) I went upstairs to my office.

Parallel Verb Tenses

It’s important to use the same verb tense in your sentences whether you are speaking or writing English unless there is a good reason to change the tenses.

Example:

(incorrect) The lecturer talked (past tense) about computer viruses. She was mentioning(present tense) different kinds.

(correct) The lecturer talked (past tense) about computer viruses. She mentioned (past tense) different kinds.  

When the subject does the action, the verb is in the active voice.

Example:

The team members wear a uniform.

The corporate office sent the letter.

When the subject does not do the action, the verb is in the passive voice.

Example:

A uniform is worn by the team members.

The letter was sent by the corporate office.

A subject and a verb should agree in number.

• If you have a singular subject, then there needs to be a singular verb. If the subject is plural, then there needs to be a plural verb.
  - (incorrect) The bus take the men to work.
  - (correct) The bus takes the men to work (singular subject “bus” takes a singular verb “takes”).
  - (incorrect) The salary bonuses is given out yearly.
  - (correct) The salary bonuses are given out yearly (plural subject “bonuses” takes a plural verb “are given”).

• A subject with two parts that are joined together with the word “and” is defined as a compound subject. Compound subjects take plural verbs.
  Example: Jan and Michael work in the same building.

• When the verb includes both a verb and a helping verb, the helping verb has to agree in number with the subject.
  Example: Jan is working in the computer store. Jan and Michael are working in the computer building.

Pronouns are defined as words that take the place of nouns. They can be singular or plural. Common pronouns include I, you, he, she, it, they, we, me, him, her, them, us. They are used to avoid repeating the same names or words in a sentence.

The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun/nouns that the pronoun refers to or replaces. The antecedent can be in the same sentence or a different sentence. Note that the pronoun agrees with the antecedent in gender (male or female).

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Example:

Marianna gave a speech this morning, and she did an outstanding job (in the same sentence - female).

David presented his marketing plan. He received great reviews (in a different sentence - male).

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It is important to make sure that the pronoun agrees with the antecedent in number as well (singular or plural).

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Example:

My boss wants to hear the original presentations. They need to be very detailed, positive, and creative.  (“presentations” is plural; “they” is plural)

My boss wants to hear the original presentation. It needs to be very detailed, positive, and creative. (“presentation” is singular; “it” is singular)

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The antecedent is the noun/nouns that the pronoun refers to or replaces. If it is unclear what the pronoun is referring to, then rephrase the sentence when speaking or rewrite the sentence so the sentence is clear.

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(an unclear example) The librarians are coding the books. They are everywhere in the library.

What’s unclear? Does the word “they” refer to “librarians” or to “books”?

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(a clear example rewritten) There are books everywhere in the library. The librarians are coding them. (“them” clearly refers to the books in this revised sentence)

Singular personal pronouns take the place of one person, place, thing, or idea. Singular personal pronouns include I, he, she, you, it, me, him, her.

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Example:

I applied for a new job. Mr. Johnson took my application. He (Mr. Johnson) said it (the application) looked great.

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Mrs. Kohler called me for an interview. She (Mrs. Kohler) asked if I could come at 2:00 on Tuesday. She (Mrs. Kohler) said, “You need to report to room 2-A.”

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I was nervous on Tuesday for the interview. It (the interview) had to go well. The secretary introduced me to Mr. Johnson. I wanted to make a good impression on him (Mr. Johnson)so I wore a new suit.

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Maybe Mrs. Kohler was impressed, too. I saw her (Mrs. Kohler) when I left the room. She(Mrs. Kohler) was smiling.

There are plural personal pronouns that take the place of two or more people, places, things, or ideas. Plural personal pronouns include they, we, them, us, you.

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Note that the word “you” can be singular or plural depending on if the word refers to one person, place, thing, or idea OR if it relates to more than one.

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Example:

My friends and I enrolled in a night course to learn more about computers.

We liked that the class was taught by a computer expert.

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The emails need to be printed out for the meeting.

Everyone will get a copy of them.

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Jacky and I sat at the far table.

Tommy sat between us.

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The manager told everyone, “You must always be on time.”

A subject pronoun takes the place of a subject of a sentence. These include the pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.

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An object pronoun follows a preposition (words such as with, to, of, at, for, about) or an action verb. These include the pronouns: me, them, him, you, her, it, us.

Possessive pronouns show ownership. These pronouns do not need an apostrophe. Sometimes, the possessive pronoun serves as an adjective and it is used before a noun to describe it. These include the pronouns: her, his, its, my, our, their, your.

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For example:

Margie has her assignment already completed.  

Peter turned his work in on Friday.

Each type of computer has its own operating system.

I am certainly busy this time of year at my job.

The downtown bank has our money invested.

Give the project to their team to review.

The boss went over your proposal and made verbal comments.

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Some possessive pronouns don’t need a noun (they stand-alone). These include his, hers, mine, yours, ours, theirs. ‍

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For example:

The customer said that the return on the counter was his.

Nora noted that the idea for the newsletter was hers.

I wanted to know if that blue pen was mine.

The director stated that the entire project was yours.

That building architecture looks similar to ours.

The lawyer took theirs first and then would deal with the other testimonials.

Indefinite Pronouns

When a pronoun does not name the word that it replaces, it is known as an indefinite pronoun. There are many indefinite pronouns in the English language: all, another, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, most, none, no one, nothing, one, other, several, some, somebody, something, such.

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For example:

Most should be turned in by midnight.

Somebody must take over the company.

Everything was done extremely well.

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Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask a question. They include the words: who, what, which, whose, whom.

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For example:

Who is going to join the team at the retreat?

What happened when the agency showed the design plan?

Which competitor should we consult with?

Whose job is to assign this week’s workload?

With whom should I discuss my concerns?

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Reflexive Pronouns

Some pronouns refer back to the subject. These pronouns are called reflexive pronouns. Some reflexive pronouns include herself, himself, itself, myself, ourselves, themselves, yourself, yourselves.

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Example:

I completed the city planning design by myself. (The pronoun “myself” refers back to the subject “I.”)

The student had the library all to herself today. (The pronoun “herself” refers back to the subject “student.”)

The soccer players found themselves without enough time to practice because it had been raining all month! (The pronoun “themselves” refers back to the subject “students.”)

Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns or pronouns. They are words that make your speech and writing more exciting. Some adjectives describe the quantity or the qualityof the nouns and pronouns.

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Quantity adjectives tell how many: There are a dozen people on the communication team. More people want to join.

Quality adjectives tell what kind: The team has new employees as well as older ones, too.

Other adjectives describe how the noun or pronoun looks, sounds, smells, feels, or tastes.

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Example:

The company handbook was attractive.

The printer made a funny noise and then it stopped working.

The fire alarm went off and we could smell the gas fumes.

The textile used for the rugs was smooth and soft.

No one could deny that the company made delicious chocolate.

Some adjectives compare two people, places, things, or ideas. These words are called comparative adjectives. They typically end in “er.” Some adjectives with two or more syllables use more or less.

Example: The staff meeting was shorter this month than last month.

Some adjectives compare three or more people, places, things, or ideas. These words are called superlative adjectives. They typically end in “est.” Some adjectives with two or more syllables use most or least.

Example: That company has the friendliest office workers.

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Oh, no! Not again. Some of the adjectives that are used to compare have irregular forms. These are some of the most common ones:

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Example:

That accountant did a better job than I could do.

Of all of the bankers, she was by far the best!

The weather could not have been worse for the production team.

It was the worst winter on record.

Their bid was more expensive than ours.

Our bid was less expensive than theirs.

The new staff members were the most ambitious.

The older staff members seemed to be the least ambitious.

Some proper adjectives can be made from proper nouns and are capitalized. There are thousands of proper adjectives in the English language.

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Example:

The adjectives “a,” “an,” and “the” are articles used more often in the English language.
These words go in front of nouns or adjectives to describe them.

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Use “a” before singular nouns and other adjectives that start with a consonant or a long vowel sound (“a” unicorn).
Use “an” before singular nouns and other adjectives that start with a vowel or a short vowel sound if the consonant is silent (“an honor”).
Use “the” in front of singular or plural adjectives that are specific.

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Example:

My co-worker gave me a book to read. (refers to a non-specific noun that starts with a consonant)

It was an agreement between both parties. (used before a noun beginning with a vowel or vowel sound)

The project started on Monday. (refers to a specific noun)

The adjectives “this,” “that,” “these,” and “those” are demonstrative adjectives. They point out specific nouns. Use “this” and “that” in front of singular nouns. Use “these” and “those” in front of plural nouns.

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Example:

This fax machine is in working order.

That computer needs to be fixed.

These reports must be typed.

Those people need to be assigned to a committee.

Adverbs can describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They are used to make everyday speech and writing more detailed and interesting. There are many adverbs in the English language that end with “ly.” These adverbs typically tell “how” or “in what way.”

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Example:

My boss proudly expressed his gratitude for our hard work. (“proudly” describes the verb expressed)

Tessa worked diligently on her English paper. (“diligently” describes the verb worked)

The bookkeeper repeatedly calculated the numbers for the report. (“repeatedly” describes the verb calculated)

The room was too cold to work in so I turned up the heat. (“too” describes the adjective cold)

The temperature warmed up very quickly. (“very” describes the adverb quickly)

Some adverbs don’t end in the suffix -ly. These adverbs usually tell “where,” “when,” and “to what extent.”

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Example:

We drove to the city and called the office when we got there. (“where”)

Tomorrow, the auditor’s report is due in the president’s office. (“when”)

The client was very pleased with the end product. (“to what extent”)

When you compare two things, you use “more” or “less” with the adverb.

Example:

My spouse works late more often than I do.

I work late less often than my spouse.

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When you compare three or more things, you use “the most” or “the least” with an adverb.

Example:

Of my three sisters, Margo uses English the most often.

My youngest sister uses English the least often out of all of us.

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Some adverbs have irregular forms for comparisons.

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Example:

The history majors performed well this quarter.

They performed better than they did last year.

The students hope to perform the best they have ever performed next year.

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The stock market did badly this month.

It did worse than last month.

This month was the worst that the stock market did in years.

Negative words are words that mean “not” or “no.” They are considered adverbs.

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Example:

My boss asked me not to turn in the cost analysis until the end of the year.

The creative team had never been unprepared.

I looked for the file but it was nowhere on my computer.

Besides the conjunctions “and,” “but,” and “or,” there are other coordinating conjunctions that join words, phrases, and parts of sentences (clauses). These include “for,” “nor,” “yet,” and “so.”

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Example:

She studied several hours each night. She wanted a better life for everyone.

I didn’t want to take on the new job nor the responsibilities.

Leo worked long hours and did commendable work, yet he was not offered a raise this year.

Traveling abroad boosted his English skills so he was much more proficient in the language.

Subordinating conjunctions join parts of the sentence with other parts. Common examples include “although,” “because,” “if,” “since,” “unless,” “until,” “while.”

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Example:

The company had a mission statement, although it seldom followed it.

My vote is for Nancy as chairman because she is dependable, smart, and communicative.

I can stay and work later tonight if my husband can watch the children.

The business expanded since it was bought out.

The merger is expected to go through unless something unforeseen happens

The new job postings will be circulated until the positions are filled.

It’s difficult to complete my homework at home while the loud music is blaring.

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Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs (“either/or,” “neither/nor,” “not only/but also”) to join alternatives or equal elements.

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Example:

It was either take the world history class or the American history class.

The company was sold neither to the highest bidder nor the lowest bidder.

Not only did the company provide child care, but also it gave tuition reimbursement for graduate classes.

A preposition is a word that is used to show the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word. Prepositions have many functions. They can show direction, position, and other relationships.

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These are some common prepositions: above, across, after, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, between, during, for, from, inside, off, on, through, to, toward, under, with.

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Example:

The science lab is around the corner from the biology room.

We were given instructions after the lecture.

Before we boarded the train, we had to buy the tickets.

I liked to play music during lunchtime.

It is always good to work toward a goal.

Your English skills will improve with effort and hard work!